Salah Al-Din’s name is so closely tied to the history of Jerusalem that, oftentimes, people instinctively associate Jerusalem with him. In this article, we will learn about the life and achievements of Salah Al-Din.

Who is Saladin? 

Salah Al-Din, also known as Yusuf Ibn Ayyub 1138-1193,^[1] was a Kurdish leader who ruled over Egypt and Syria in the Middle Ages. He was born near Baghdad in 1137 to the well known Ayyubi family. ^[2]His father and uncle moved to Mousel, where they formed an alliance with the ruler of Iraq at the time, Imad Al-Din Zengi. The strong Sultan Zengi took care of the new family, who ultimately prospered under his government. .^[3] The family was known for their military intelligence and soon reciprocated the sultan’s kindness by conquering new territory for him. This territory included Damascus, where Salah Al-Din was later sent to receive an education.^[4]

After Imad Al-Din’s death, his son Nour Al-Din Zengi took over. The close relationship with the Ayyubi family continued, and the new sultan became particularly close to Salah Al-Din, who showed early signs of brilliance.^[5] Soon after, Salah Al-Din progressed rapidly to high ranks in Nour Al-Din’s military. Eventually, became his confidant and assistant..^[6]

^Achievements

^{Salah Al-Din was the real founder of the Ayyubid dynasty [7]} that ruled in Egypt and Syria for decades.^[8]The Arab hero who came from Kurdish origins was able to unify wide territories of the Arab and Islamic world. He ruled over Egypt, Syria, Mesopotamia, the Hejaz and Yemen.^[9]

Why is Saladin Important? What is He Most Famous For?

Salah Al-Din is best known for his role as a leader, liberating Jerusalem from the Crusaders, but even before that, Salah Al- Din played an important role in the history of the region. Nour Al-Din Zengi sent Salah Al-Din and his uncle to Egypt, which, at the time, was the capital of the Fatimid Dynasty.^[10] Once in Egypt, Salah Al-Din started calling for the establishment of a Sunni state in support of the Abbasid dynasty in Syria. Upon the death of the last Fatimid ruler,.^[11]Salah Al-Din was able to take over Egypt where he built the walls of Cairo, established a great army, and fought internal discord and rebellion .^[12]

^{Only then, after 16 years of hard work, was he able to attack Crusaders in Palestine and surrounding territories, which later became known as his crowning military victory[13]}

Liberating Jerusalem

Upon establishing a strong army in Egypt and Syria, other suitable circumstances paved the way for Salah Al-Din to fight Crusaders and restore Jerusalem to Muslim rule. Most notably, the death of the Crusaders King Baldwin V caused the Crusaders to suffer from internal weakness, as power struggles took the stage. Salah Al-Din took advantage of an incident, known historically as Safouria, when the Crusader ruler of Kerak attacked a pilgrimage convoy in violation of a peace agreement with the Muslims.^[14]This incident led to the Battle of Hattin, which liberated Jerusalem from Crusader rule and established Muslim governance over the region. ,^[15]Shortly before his death, Salah Al-Din stopped another Crusade attack that was led by Richard the Lionheart, King of England, by signing a peace treaty with him. which allowed western Christians access to Jerusalem for pilgrimage, so long as the Crusader Christians formally left the city and did not live within its boundaries.^[16]

Religious Tolerance

Salah Al-Din, after liberating Jerusalem, was gracious and noble in his governance. The Muslim leader indeed gained his fame not from the success of his battles, but from his personal traits and noble characteristics .^[17]Despite the atrocities committed by the Crusaders, Salah Al-Din allowed them to leave Jerusalem upon paying a ransom in which men paid ten Dinars, women paid five and children paid two. He paid money for those who were not able to do so from his own pocket, while he allowed the Arab Christians who were original inhabitants of Jerusalem to stay in the city. He also allowed the Jews to return to the city after years of exclusion.^[18]

Influence on Jerusalem

Salah Al-Din and his ancestors from the Ayyubid dynasty left a great influence on Jerusalem and its rich cultural heritage. Jerusalem gained a special status in the newly emerging power. Right after the liberation, Salah Al-Din started extensive renovations and construction in Jerusalem, where he and his followers cleaned Al-Aqsa mosque, rebuilt the walls, and washed the mosque with rose water. ^[19]Salah Al-Din personally worked on these projects, using his own two hands to aid in the construction projects .^[20] There is a stone monument in the southern part of Al-Aqsa Plaza that mentions the work of Salah Al-Din in Jerusalem.^[21]

Personal Traits and Characteristics

Although Salah Al-Din was a well known militant ruler, he never liked the sight of blood, as it indicated too much killing. He advised his sons after him not to shed blood as, according to him, “blood does not sleep.” ^[22]

Many influential characters in modern history praised Salah Al-Din and considered him a rare example of a great leader. The British Prime Minister Churchill considered him one of the greatest kings humanity has ever known, while the British author Reid Richard described him as the greatest man on earth.^[23]

Some sources state a total of 9 crusades in the Holy Land of Jerusalem ending with Edward I’s Ninth Crusade.

However the crusades were a series of military expeditions with at least 6 more military campaigns labeled crusades.

That is a total of 15 crusades.

The first 3 crusades are the most commonly known and as such we’ve covered them in more depth in this article.

While Peter the Hermit, a priest, led the People’s Crusade that preceded it.

The Fatimid Caliphate in Jerusalem

Who were the Fatimids in Jerusalem? Where did the Fatimids come from?

The Fatimids began as a new strong state that originated in Morocco as a caliphate.

The Fatimids claimed that they’re origins can be traced back to the Prophet Muhammad through the lineage of Fatimah, her sons Hasan and Hussain, and their descendants.^[1]

Were the Fatimids Sunni or Shia/Shi’i?

The Fatimids were a Shi’i Caliphate. 

Shi’a originating from Shi’at Ali (شيعة علي) – the Muslims who claimed themselves to be followers of Ali ibn Abī Tālib, the cousin and son-in-law of the prophet Muhammad.

When did the Fatimid Caliphate Start?

The Fatimid era came up in Morocco during the time of Abbasids, more specifically during the ninth and tenth centuries.

Although the Fatimids established the beginning of their empire in Morocco, soon they extended their rule to Egypt^[2] which later became the center of the Fatimid state.

How did the Fatimids take over Egypt?

The Fatimids had repeatedly invaded Egypt soon after coming to power in the ninth century, but failed against the strong Abbasid Caliphate until 969.

The Fatimid caliph, al-Mu’izz li-Din Allah sent general Jawhar who captured and took over Egypt in 969 due to the Abbasids beginning to weaken and lose their power.

The Fatimids continued to the Levant, a historical area that included present-day Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Israel, Palestine and most of Turkey.

When did the Fatimids conquer Palestine and Jerusalem?

In 969 the Fatimids took over Palestine and Syria under the Caliph Al-Aziz  finally triumphing over the Abbasids.^[3]

The Fatimid state ruled Jerusalem for almost a century after that, from 969- 1070, ^[4]but their rule did not go unchallenged.

The Fatimid era was in fact one that saw a lot of dispute and disturbance, owed namely to the presence of competing powers in the area like the Abbasids and the Qaramitah.^[5]

What did the Fatimid caliphate achieve and do?

Similar to the caliphs of the Abbasid dynasty, the main efforts that the Fatimid Caliphs undertook in Jerusalem were related to the construction and reconstruction of mosques and buildings.

Jerusalem was plagued again by earthquakes which caused a lot of damage to the Dome of the Rock and Al-Aqsa mosques. Both were reconstructed many times by Caliphs like Al-Mostanser, Al-Zaher, and Al-Naser.^[6]

The Fatimids also rebuilt and fortified the walls of the city of Jerusalem itself.^[7]

The Fatimids, like the Abbasids before them, also paid particular attention to the flow of knowledge and scholarship in the city and built the well-known “Fatimid House of Science”^[8] from which many influential scholars graduated.^[9] They also built a hospital in the city and commissioned the erection of monuments like the maqam to the north of the Dome in 1041.^[10]

Did the Fatimids rule with religious freedom or persecution?

The Fatimid era was inconsistent regarding the religious and civil freedoms of non-Muslims in Jerusalem.

Fatimid sometimes depended on non- Muslims in government’s finances and chanceries^[11].

Under the rule of the caliph Al-Aziz (976-996) Jews and Christians enjoyed a wide scale religious and civil freedom in Jerusalem,^[12] but were met with persecution when his son Al-Hakim took over.^[13] Pilgrimage to the area by non-Muslim was banned and churches, including the Church of the Holy Sepulcher.^[14]

After Al-Hakim’s death, and during the subsequent rule of Al-Zaher, in 1027, the churches were rebuilt ,the ban on pilgrimage was lifted, and the persecution of non-Muslims was put to an end.^{[15] [16]}

Jerusalem under the Seljuk Turks

In year X, Jerusalem was invaded by the Seljuk Turcoman ^[17]the city for a brief and troubled time. Seljuk Turks initially served as mercenaries to the Abbasids,^[18] but in 1055, overthrew them and assumed power in Baghdad.^[19] In 1071, Seljuk troops, under the leadership of Muhammad Arsalan, succeeded in conquering Palestine and Syria.^[20] Jerusalem fell under their rule for 25 years, excluding some months in 1076-1077 when the Fatimids recovered their power over the city for a short period of time.^[21] Jerusalemites rebelled against the Seljuk ruler and expelled him and his troops from the city. Shortly afterwards, the Seljuk army laid siege to Jerusalem, killed many of its inhabitants and looted its treasures.^[22]

Although the scholarship continued to prosper under the Seljuk Turks, non Muslims were once again subject to prosecution that led to first crusader invasion in 1099 that ended the 500-year era of Islamic rule of the city.^[23][24][25]

The Abbasid Empire rose to power in 750 and took control of the Levant and Iraq. Competition with their predecessors, the Umayyads, was fierce, and one of their main points of contention was regarding control over the city of Jerusalem, considered holy land by both groups of Muslims.^[1] the Abbasids moved the capital of Caliphate from Damascus, Syria to Baghdad, Iraq and started a powerful dynasty that lasted until 1258 when the Mamluks gained control .^[2]

.Jerusalem, though not the capital city of the empire, was one that was often visited by different Abbasid caliphs.^[3] Al-Mansour, the founder of the Abbasid Rule, visited Jerusalem twice and ordered the reconstruction of the Dome of the Rock.^[4] Al-Mahdi, the third Abbasid Caliph^[5] and Al-Ma’moun, the seventh Abbasid Caliph, also visited it.^[6]

The achievements of the Abbasids in Jerusalem

During the Abbasid era, Jerusalem experienced many damaging earthquakes. The mosques and the walls of the city were thus in need of continuous repair—which the Abbasids saw to.

Al-Mansour, the founder of the Abbasid state, ordered the reconstruction of the Dome of the Rock after its collapse due to the earthquake of 748,^[7] and the third Abbasid Caliph, Al-Mahdi, ordered the reconstruction of Al-Aqsa mosque in 780 after an earthquake struck in 774 and damaged some of its..^[8]

In 831, the Abbasid Caliph Al-Ma’moun ordered the construction of more gates in the walls of the shrine from the eastern and the northern sides. The patriarch in Al- Ma’moun’s time carried out repairs in the holy church of Sepulchre.^[9] Al-Mamoun also ordered the minting of a coin that held the name of “Al-Quds” to commemorate the reconstruction of the Dome or the Rock.^[10]

In 913, the mother of the Caliph Al-Muqtadir ordered the reconstruction of the Dome of the Rock and the addition of a luxurious wooden porch to each one of the mosque’s doors.^[11]

Like the Umayyads before them, the Abbasids took care to sponsor and encourage the flourishing of scientific discovery and invention..^[12] Following the rise of Sufism, and the centrality of the city to the movement, many scholars and imams visited Jerusalem..^[13]

Split and Disputed Rule

Towards the end of the Abbasid era, the state weakened and lost land to surrounding powers. The first loss for the Abbasid dynasty came at the end of the ninth century at the hands of Turks. Long before that, the Abbasid Caliphs had started relying more on Turkish mercenaries and used them as governors of provinces. In time, the Turks’ power had grown and their influence in the area increased.^[14] In 868, the aide to the Governor of Egypt, Ahmad bin Tulun, who came from Turkic origins, broke with the Abbasid Caliph in Baghdad and by 877 succeeded in conquering the Levant and adopting Jerusalem as an Egyptian province.^[15] In 905, the new Tulunid state came to an end after internal disorders that weakened the state and led to a final defeat in front of the Abbasid army in Egypt; and hence Abbasid control over the area was restored.^[16]

After the end Tulunid dynasty in Egypt, Muhammad Bin Tughj, a personal server of the Caliph and then a military assistant appointed by the Abbasids, took over the rule in Egypt. Tughj, or Ikhshid extended his rule to the Levant.^[17] Although Jerusalem was not mentioned much in the records of the Ikhshidid dynasty, their ruler in Jerusalem, Mohammed bin Ismail al-Sanhaji, who was appointed by Kafur, the Ikhshidid Caliph in Egypt, is known for his destruction of churches and his persecution of Jerusalem’s Christians.^[18]

The Abbasid dynasty suffered from a Fatimid invasion which eventually brought about its downfall in the area. The strong Fatimid dynasty, which started out in Morocco, was able to extend its rule to Palestine and Syria under its Caliph Al-Zahir (976-996) and maintained control over the city for Y years.^[19]

Muslims conquered Jerusalem in 639.. Second caliph, Umar bin al-Khattab, visited the city and ordered the erection of mosques and assigned some of Muhammad’s contemporaries and companions like well-known Ubadah bin al-Samit the positions of judges and teachers in the city^[1].^[2] Uthman, the Caliph who took over after the murder of Umar, gifted the inhabitants of the city with the spring of Silwan as a waqf, and inspired the beginning of a culture of giving endowments in the form of public services in the city.^[3].^[4] After the murder of Uthman, disagreement about whether Ali bin abi Talib should be inaugurated before justice was served to the murders of Uthman caused tensions among the Muslims, and battles ensued. Eventually, the group led and supported by Aisha, the wife of the prophet Muhammad, and several of the companions, including the governor of the Levant since the reign of the first caliph, surrendered. Mu‘awiya the governor in Damascus, marked the start of the Umayyad dynasty when he declared his son Yazid would rule after him.

The Significance of Jerusalem for the Umayyad dynasty

Several Umayyad caliphs visited the city^[5] and some, including Mu‘awiya, Abd al-Malik and Sulayman were even inaugurated there.^{[6] [7]}.^[8] The rulers assigned to govern Palestine were often Umayyad princes who were on their way to the caliphate like Abd al-Malik and his son Sulayman or their most trusted noblemen like Umar bin Said Al-Ansari.^[9]

The Achievements of Umayyad Dynasty in Jerusalem

The most notable achievement of the Umayyad state in Jerusalem was the construction of Al-Aqsa Mosque and the Dome of the Rock.^[10] Abd al-Malik bin Marwan, the Umayyad Caliph whose reign extended from 685-705, ordered the construction of the Dome,^[11] Historians offer differing accounts regarding the construction of the al-Aqsa mosque: many of them believe that Abd Al-Malik ordered the erection of the mosque while his son Al-Walid finished its work later in the eighth century.^[12]Some call this mosque the mosque of Umar referring to the first time Umar Bin Al-Khattab prayed in Jerusalem in Al-Aqsa yard.^[13]

Abd al-Malik bin Marwan is credited for ordering the addition of two additional gates to the walls of the city,^[14] and for the road network that connects Jerusalem to different Palestinian cities and to Damascus, the headquarter of the Caliph.^[15]The Umayyads also spent a lot of money on the reconstruction of mosques, buildings and walls of the city,^[16] in addition to the minting of coins that commemorated both the construction of the mosques and Arab presence in the city.^[17]

The Umayyads supported scientific and intellectual advancement in the city and encouraged many scholars to visit the city and live in it.^[18]

Beginning five years after the death of the prophet Muhammad, Muslims ruled Jerusalem and its surrounding areas for a total of 13 centuries, but after almost 500 years, in 1099, lost control of the city to the crusaders for 100 years^[1].^[2]

For the most part, from 638-1517 Jerusalem was ruled by Arabs including the Umayyad, Abbasid, and Fatimid dynasties. Between 1072 and 1092 the Seljuk Turks controlled the city but from 1099 to 1187 and from 1229 to 1239, the crusaders ruled.Following these eight centuries, Jerusalem came under the control of the Turkish Ottoman Empire.^[3]

Many Trails to reach Jerusalem

Jerusalem is considered to be the third most sacred city for Muslims after Mecca and Medina.^[4] The city of Prophets was mentioned in the chapter of the Quran titles al-Israa where the nocturnal journey of Prophet Muhammad from Mecca to Jerusalem and then his ascension from there to the heavens is recounted^[5] The first verse of this chapter reads: “Exalted is He who took His Servant by night from the sacred mosque (in Mecca) to the al-Aqsa mosque, whose surroundings We have blessed, to show him of Our signs. Indeed, He is the Hearing, the seeing”.

Jerusalem was also the first qibla for Muslims, which they were required to face the direction of whenever they prayed.^[6] For eighteen months, the Prophet and his companions prayed towards Jerusalem before the verses that ordered them to turn to Mecca were revealed.^[7]

Because of the religious significance of Jerusalem, Muslims tried several times to reach and conquer Jerusalem during the time of the Prophet and after his death. The first Muslim battle with the Byzantines took place during the time of the Prophet in 629. The battle of Mu’ta under the leadership of Zaid bin Haritha ended with the withdrawal of the Muslims.^[8] Muhammad leaded another battle against the Byzantines later in his life. The battle of Tabuk ended without a real fight due to the withdrawal of Byzantines,^[9] And the prophet once again prepared an army to face the Byzantines under the leadership of Usamah Bin Zaid, but died before the army left the Medina.^[10]

In 636, Muslims arrived in the area surrounding Jerusalem. At the time of Abu Bakr, the first Caliph, the army of Muslims prepared by the Prophet left Medina and headed to where it defeated the Byzantine in the battle of Yarmuk.^[11] The area fell under the Muslim control except for Jerusalem which stayed under Byzantines for another two years.^[12]

Muslim reach Jerusalem

In 638, the Muslims laid siege to the city of Jerusalem.^[13] Muslims, under the leadership of the companion Abu Ubaida Amir bin al-Jarrah^[14] gave the inhabitants of Jerusalem three options: to convert to Islam, to surrender and pay a poll tax in exchange for guarantee of protection by the Muslims, or war.^[15] The Christian inhabitants chose to fight. For four months, Jerusalem was under siege until its inhabitants vied for peace, but argued that they would only surrender to the caliph himself. ^[16].^[17]

Umar in Jerusalem

Sophronius, Jerusalem orthodox patriarch, required the arrival of Umar before he hands over the city’s keys.^[18] When Umar arrived to the city he was dressed simply, and was riding on a camel, and it was only upon his arrival that the patriarch agreed to open the city’s gates.^[19]

Umar visited Jerusalem for the first time in 639 and handed its patriarch a formal written pact that secured the safety of Christian property, and their individual freedom and safety. This pledge was historically known as The Umari covenant or al-‘Uhdah al-Umariyya.^[20]The Umari Covenant

In addition to the agreement to protect the property, safety, and freedom of the Christian inhabitants of the city, Umar also allowed the Jews to come back to the city and practice their religion freely.^[21] The pact ensured the civil and religious rights of all inhabitants of the city^[22] and read “From the servant of God and the Commander of the Faithful, Umar: The inhabitants of Jerusalem are granted security of life and property. Their churches and crosses shall be secure. This treaty applies to all people of the city. Their places of worship shall remain intact. These shall neither be taken over nor pulled down. People shall be quite free to follow their religion. They shall not be put to any trouble.”^[23]

Umar visiting Jerusalem Churches

Upon his visit to the city, the patriarch shows Umar around and takes him to the Church of the Holy Sepulcher.^[24] When they were in the church, Sophornias invited Umar to pray in the church but Umar refused, citing his fear that his followers might take this as a justification to take over the church and turn it into a mosque. Umar prayed on a ground close to the church and Muslims later erected a mosque on that ground and called it the Umari mosque which still exists until this day.^[25]

The first Mosque in Jerusalem

After visiting the church, Umar asked Sophornias to take him to the area where Muslims believe the stone from where the Prophet ascended to the sky during his night journey is.^[26]He cleaned the stone that bore the footprint of Muhammad and Then prayed in the place and ordered the erection of a mosque around the stone.^[27] The simple construction was later replaced with the glorious Dome of the Rock built by the Umayyad Caliph Abd- Al-Malik Bin Marwan.^[28]

Others say that Umar prayed south of the stone and that this area is actually where the currentAl-Aqsa Mosque stands. Regardless these two mosques, Al-Aqsa and the Dome of the Rock, and the enclosed area between them is also referred to al haram al-sharif, or the Noble Shrine, and is the most sacred sanctuary for Muslims in the area.

During the first five centuries after the quelling of the second Jewish revolt, peace prevailed in the holy city of Jerusalem^[1] and from 324 AD- 638 AD Christianity was the official religion of the empire.^[2]

In 330 AD, Emperor Constantine’s rule extended from the Roman Empire to the Byzantine Empire, and shortly after Christianity became the dominant religion of the Empire upon his conversion to Christianity.^[3] Byzantium was renamed Constantinople^[4] and became the capital of both empires: the western in Rome and the eastern in Byzantium.^[5]

A Flourishing Era of Churches

Constantine and his mother Helena ordered the erection of many churches in Jerusalem.^[6] The most important church built then was the Church of the Holy Sepulcher, also referred to as the Church of Resurrection. They also ordered the building of the Church of the Ascension on the Mount of Olives, the Church of Martyrium midway between Jerusalem and Bethlehem,^[7] and the Church of Nativity in Bethlehem.^[8]

Similar to Emperors before him, Constantine prohibited Jews from entering Jerusalem and soon the city became inhabited entirely by Christians. Although the prohibition of the entry of Jews into the city existed as the general policy of the Roman Empire from the fourth century until its fall in the seventh century, during the reign of Emperor Julian, there was a brief period when Jews were allowed to return to the city.^[9] Julian persecuted Christians while allowed Jews to return to the city and rebuild their temple. After he died, e Jews were expelled once again, before they had a chance to rebuild their temple in the city.^[10]

Christians once again became the dominant inhabitants of the city and they continued to establish and expand their churches. From the beginning of the rule of Empress Eudokia in 444 AD, there was a flourishing of churches.^[11] The empress ordered the building of many churches including the Church of St Stephen where she is believed to be buried.^[12]

A pictorial map of the holy land, produced in mosaic form, was discovered in the ruins a church in Madaba, Jordan in 1897. The map dates back to the sixth century and is the oldest representation of Jerusalem. It includes the churches and monasteries of the city, its walls, streets and markets. The map is a witness to the flourishing era of both Christianity and culture in Jerusalem.^[13]

Flourishing Commercial Life

With the erection of many churches in Jerusalem, the city became a center of Christian pilgrimage. The Jerusalem that witnessed the last days of Jesus according to the Christian tradition, now attracted pilgrims from different places, which resulted in the prosperity of commerce and business. Soon the city became the richest in the East.^[14] he Fifth Church Council cemented the place of Jerusalem by declaring it the center for the Patriarchate.^[15] However, the economic and cultural growth of the city also made it a target for invasion campaigns from the competing empire of the East, Persia.^[16]

The Persian Invasion

In 614 AD, the Persian emperor Chosroes II invaded Jerusalem.^[17] Many Jews living in the northern parts of Palestine joined Chosroes’ invading troops and made their way into the city.^[18]

Upon the capture of Jerusalem, Persians and Jews massacred Christian inhabitants, destroyed churches and took The True Cross, upon which Jesus was believed to be crucified, with them to Persia.^[19]

The Persian victory, however, did not last, and ; 627-628 AD Heraclius, the emperor of Byzantium, attacked the Persians, defeated Chosroes II and restored Jerusalem to Byzantine rule again.^[20] The True Cross was also taken back to Jerusalem.^[21] Muslims believe that this battle between the two empires was mentioned in Quran in the chapter on the Romans (Surah al-Rum) where Quran predicted the victory of Rome after its defeat at the hands of the Persians.^[22]

Once again, Heraclius followed in the footsteps of Hadrian and issued an edict forbidding the Jewish presence in the city under penalty of death.^[23]

While the great empires of Persia and Byzantium were fighting over n Jerusalem, a new power emerged under Prophet Muhammad in the Arabian Peninsula that threatened both empires.^[24] The new Muslim nation fought the Romans first in Mu’ta (a city in the south of present day Jordan) and shortly afterwards, defeated them in 636 AD in the battle of Yarmouk.^[25]

In 637 AD the Arabs lay siege to the city of Jerusalem and one year later the Muslim Caliph Umar Bin Al-Khattab received a message that Aelia (Jerusalem) would surrender to him alone. The Patriarch of Jerusalem handed the city’s keys to the Caliph upon a guarantee of the city’s security to begin a new chapter of the city’s history.^[26]

After the death of Herod the Great and from 4BC-41 AD, Jerusalem was ruled by Roman officials called procurators.^[1] it was under the rule of procurators that Jesus was born.

Jesus was born in Bethlehem, raised in Nazareth and Galilee, and preached in Jerusalem.^[2] According to the Christian tradition, crucified and buried in the city as well.^[3]

The bible mentions that Jesus visited the city number of times, one of them when he was thirteen years old at a time when Jerusalem was a great prosperous Roman city.

In 33 AD, when Pontius Pilate was the Roman Procurator of Jerusalem, Jesus visited the city..^[4] According to the bible, he was arrested, put to trial and crucified. After his trial in Pilate’s castle, Jesus walked via Dolorosa^[5] towards Golgotha^[6] which was the city’s place of execution. Christians came to sanctify this route and consider it a route of pilgrimage.^[7]

The Gospel of John narrates the full story of the crucifixion. It states that Pilates did not want to kill Jesus and was sure he was both righteous and innocent of blasphemy and corruption charges brought against him, but that he bowed under the pressure of the Jewish masses in the city calling for the kill of the Messiah.^[8] This admission can also be found in one of the letters Pilates sent to the Roman emperor Tiberius Caesar, which is now preserved in the British Museum. ^[9]

It took the Roman Empire a long time to adopt Christianity as an official religion. This happened only in the fourth century with the Edict of Thessalonica in 380 AD, when Emperor Theodosius I declared it the official and sole authorized religion of the empire. For three centuries after this, Jerusalem became the Christian center of the east, and even after the Muslim conquest of the city in the seventh century, Christians co-existed with Muslims and had, for the most part, the freedom to do so.^[10]

Seventy years after Antiochus Sidetes, King of Seleucids, besieged Jerusalem in 134 BC, Roman Commander Pompey succeeded in capturing the city in 63 BC,^[1] and for seven centuries (63 BC-638 AD) Jerusalem was ruled by the Romans.^[2]

Although Pompey destroyed the walls and many buildings in Jerusalem when he entered it,^[3]the Romans otherwise led a civilized invasion of the city^[4] and for two centuries the Romans granted Jerusalem, which was inhabited by Nabateans, Arabs, Jews, Egyptians and Phoenicians,^[5] self-government and let its inhabitants rule themselves. However, after the Jewish which resulted in the expulsion of the Jewish population from the city and the official ban on Judaism and Jewish practices, Jerusalem became a Roman colony and was ruled by Roman officials.^[6]

Under Roman rule, Jerusalem prospered commercially, politically and militarily.^[7] Rome built temples, palaces, streets, bridges and dams in Jerusalem. It also minted coins, planted trees and fostered industry and business. Most of the monuments erected under Roman rule were destroyed either during the two Jewish revolts which emerged due to the Roman policies against the Jewish religious traditions or upon the Persian invasion.^[8]

Two other dramatic shifts in the city occurred within the last three centuries of the Roman rule: the increase in popularity of Christianity upon the conversion of the Roman Emperor Constantine and the consequent declaration of Christianity as the official religion of the empire. The official declaration happened in AD 330 when the Roman Empire turned into the Empire of Byzantium. Emperor Constantine rebuilt the old city of Byzantium into the new city of Constantinople and declared it the capital of Empire instead of Rome.^[9]

Herod the Great

In 40 BC, Herod, the son of Caesar,^[10] became king of Judea (Palestine) then a Roman colony.^[11] Prior to that, Herod used to be the governor of Galilee. ^[12] Judea remained under his rule from 37 BC-4 BC.^[13]

Herod commissioned the building of castles, streets, wells, towers and great buildings.^[14] The most famous momentum erected in his rule though was his royal palace, Antonia, which was built in 35 BC.^[15] The palace was set on the northern west corner of the upper city close to today’s Jaffa Gate located on the southwest hill.^[16] Historians credit Herod with the repair and strengthening of Jerusalem’s walls.^[17] Throughout his rule, the inhabitants of Jerusalem enjoyed relative religious freedom and Herod actually ordered the reconstruction of the previously destroyed^[18] Jewish temple.^[19]

Jewish rebellions against the Romans

The Jewish inhabitants of Jerusalem revolted against Rome twice: in 66-70 AD, and in 132-135 AD under the leadership of Bar Kochba.^[20]

In 66 AD, , seeking political and social independence from the Empire of Rome, the Jews of Jerusalem revolted against the Romans ^[21] In 70 AD, the Roman commander Titus led the fight against them.^[22] He surrounded the city, destroyed its walls, buildings and markets, killed many Jews, destroyed their temple^[23] and restored the city to the Roman rule again.^[24]

The second revolt, occurred in 135 when the Jews under the leadership of Bar Kochba^[25] revolted against the Roman Emperor Hadrian who had destroyed the city and turned it into a center for idols worship.^[26] After the second revolt, Jews were either killed, sold into slavery, or exiled to the far corners of the Roman Empire,^[27] and were prohibited from entering the city by law.^[28]